J.R.R. Tolkien: Myths That Never Were and the Worlds That They Become

Ian McKellen as Gandalf
Ian McKellen as Gandalf

This article is by Dan Berger.

It’s strange to imagine today, but there was a time when the publication of J.R.R. Tolkien’s The Lord of the Rings was a matter very much in doubt.

There were two primary reasons for this near tragedy. One was the scarcity of paper that plagued the United Kingdom in the aftermath of World War II. The other was Tolkien’s initial insistence on releasing The Lord of the Rings to his publisher, Allen & Unwin, only on the condition that The Silmarilion be published in concert with it.

The price of printing the full text of a book the size of The Lord of the Rings posed significant challenges in and of itself; adding The Silmarilion to the mix, particularly given its sometimes tenuous connection to The Lord of the Rings’ narrative, was seen as potentially disastrous. In the spring of 1950, Sir Stanley Unwin wrote Tolkien with the bad news that Allen & Unwin were unable to accommodate his demands and The Lord of the Rings suddenly found itself without a publisher.

Undaunted, Tolkien approached Milton Waldman of Collins with the same offer. Waldman initially accepted, but production delays almost immediately began to raise doubts about the viability of printing both books. In need of reassurances that both The Lord of the Rings and The Silmarilion were textually inseparable, Waldman received a letter from Tolkien late in 1951 attempting to demonstrate the interdependence of the two texts. The letter was approximately 10,000 words long and still stands as one of the defining commentaries by Tolkien on the conception and creation of Middle-earth. What has drawn me to it most over the years is one of Tolkien’s impetuses for creating Middle-earth, that he articulates in the initial paragraphs of his correspondence:

Also – and here I hope that I shall not sound absurd – I was from early days grieved by the poverty of my own beloved country: it had no stories of its own (bound up with its tongue and soil), not of the quality that I sought, and found (as an ingredient) in legends of other lands. There was Greek, and Celtic, and Romance, Germanic, Scandinavian, and Finnish (which greatly affected me); but nothing in English, save the impoverished chap-book stuff. Of course there was and is all the Arthurian world, but powerful as it is, it is imperfectly naturalized, associated with the soil of Britain but not with English; and does not replace what I felt to be missing (Carpenter, Humphery. The Letters of J.R.R. Tolkien, p. 144 Houghton Mifflin, 1981).

This sentiment of Tolkien’s resonated strongly with me as an American. If the mythological tradition of Britain is “impoverished,” it can only be described as mangled, confused, or non-existent in America. In a nation settled by succeeding waves of European immigrants that violently displaced the indigenous cultures, to whom exactly does a uniquely American mythology belong? The aboriginal peoples? The settlers? Can it be found in the narrative of how the whole nasty mess sorted itself out over the centuries?

The Purpose of Mythology within a Culture

All too frequently, readers of Tolkien glom onto his specific world building elements as inspiration for their own worlds. High fantasy is often (and often lazily) criticized as a genre overly attached to its own tropes, many of which were patterned after Tolkien’s admittedly unavoidable template. The litany of Dark Lords and elves, pseudo-medieval societies and ancient magic in high fantasy is as long as the exposition describing the invented histories that typically connects these elements together. All of these traditions begin with Tolkien, but for high fantasy to continue growing as a form it may be more instructive to draw inspiration – as Tolkien did – from the search for a mythological tradition that never was rather than to emulate the mythological tradition he invented.

Easy enough to say “All right, now go reinvent the wheel, and have a nice day.” Where does one begin searching for themes and lessons that might serve as inspiration for an invented mythological tradition that will resonate with modern traditions and ideas of nationhood, and still serve as the backdrop for a heightened literary world filled with magic, monsters, and larger than life heroes that feels somehow “ancient?”

There are really two different issues that need to be addressed:

  1. creating a fictional mythological tradition inspired by the circumstances of the writer’s native nationality
  2. creating a world that logically arises from the resulting traditions and history so inspired

The starting point, then, must be to define the purpose of mythology within a culture.

Briefly stated, the function of myth is to serve both as a guide for behavior within a culture and as a touchstone informing the essential elements of the human condition. Mythology is the lens through which humanity scrutinizes core concepts like Good and Evil, the value of honesty, and the relationship between Civilization and Nature as well as the relationship between various cultures and their roots in their native soil, right down to the origin of the universe itself. Frequently, mythic traditions will contain recurring thematic strands, such as the Greek notion of hubris and the sin of excessive pride or the Judeo-Christian exploration of worldly bondage and divine emancipation through faith.

Fortunately, the character and history of a nation tend to follow broad thematic channels as well, making history an ideal starting point for mythic inspiration. Tolkien drew from a variety of British historical sources for inspiration. There are numerous echoes of the stone circles and Neolithic sites dotting the United Kingdom found everywhere from the Barrow-Downs of The Fellowship of the Ring to the  “…dreary hills, rising higher and higher…” topped by ”…castles with an evil look,” found in the Lone-lands of The Hobbit. Tolkien’s experience with the ugliness of World War I finds its way into the mythology of Middle-earth in the Dead Marshes of the Dagorlad in The Two Towers, while his experience with the industrialization of the English countryside colors the recurring theme of conflict between the accord with nature found among the Ents and the elves of Lothlorien in opposition to the grinding oppression of mechanized “progress” represented by Saruman and the works of Barad-dûr.

Fortunately, even a nation as young as the United States possesses a history rich in thematic strands of national character ripe for exploration and reinterpretation as fictional mythology and fantasy world building. Below are three examples based on my own American origins. The same principals of adaptation should apply regardless of national origin.

Example 1: Manifest Destiny

Thematic Grist: During the beginning part of the 19th century, much of the United States was unexplored and undeveloped wilderness…as far as the Anglo-Saxon population was concerned. An attitude rose they were not only able, but obliged by destiny to push westward through this untamed land and build a nation stretching from coast to coast. This idea was given the name “manifest destiny” by columnist and Editor John L. O’Sullivan in an 1845 article promoting the annexation of Texas and the Oregon Country to the still fledgling United States.

Manifest destiny represents both the best and the worst impulses championed by the American people of the time. The idea spurred everything from pioneer settlement of the western states to the rise of the canal systems linking the nation’s interior to the Atlantic Ocean, the transcontinental railroad, and, eventually, the Interstate Highway System. It also encouraged the destruction and displacement of aboriginal peoples and incited war with Mexico.

World Building Possibilities: Manifest Destiny comes with the built-in conflict of an overwhelming alien culture at odds with a beleaguered aboriginal culture. Exploring its themes depends largely on which perspective you choose to adopt in the conflict. There are stories to be told based on the forced removal and displacement of entire peoples from their native lands onto reservations, essentially turning them into foreigners in their own country. Perhaps a magic-poor sea power “discovers” a new continent where one of the greatest natural resources is a mineral capable of amplifying magical effects, a mineral that just happens to be held sacred by the indigenous “primitive” cultures.

Example 2: The Birth of the Modern Republic

Thematic Grist: One of the great themes in American culture is revolution against the tyranny of monarchy and the desire for freedom. These ideas led to the United States creating the first modern Republic based on government by the people, for the people where all citizens are created equal. The “created equal” portion of the sentiment is still a work in progress as notions of fairness and equality evolve over time, but the idea that personal freedom, rather than the authority of a sovereign monarch, is a matter of “divine right” is a powerfully American notion with interesting mythological implications.

World Building Possibilities: Introducing the idea of a Republic as the standard form of government rather than the more common use of kingdoms and feudalities automatically changes the dynamic of a fantasy world. For the most part, high fantasy functions under the social and political assumptions seen in monarchies, an idea that still lingers in our own times through institutions such as Christian tradition, with the idea of the Lord God reigning in the Kingdom of Heaven. Imagine how different such a theological model would be if it were based on the idea that humanity has a say in the rule of heaven. There are literally dozens of conventions in high fantasy that would disappear with the rule of Republics, from the princeling spirited away and hidden from evil usurpers to one day return and regain the crown to the idea of a “Dark Lord” as a villain.

Example 3: Immigration and the “American Dream”

Thematic Grist: The history of America and the complexion of the American people are built on multiple waves of immigrants leaving their homelands to seek their fortune in the promise of a “New World” where a person could climb beyond the circumstances of their birth to gain status and prosperity through hard work. This belief was first formalized by James Truslow Adams in his 1931 book The Epic of America:

The American Dream is that dream of a land in which life should be better and richer and fuller for everyone, with opportunity for each according to ability or achievement. It is a difficult dream for the European upper classes to interpret adequately, and too many of us ourselves have grown weary and mistrustful of it. It is not a dream of motor cars and high wages merely, but a dream of social order in which each man and each woman shall be able to attain to the fullest stature of which they are innately capable, and be recognized by others for what they are, regardless of the fortuitous circumstances of birth or position.

World Building Possibilities: The American Dream is another theme that offers interesting options in changing up the conventions of high fantasy. How would a hero’s motivations change if they were approaching an adventure from the position of a poor immigrant starting their life over in a new land rather than a poor farm boy ripped away from his pastures by some mad quest? How would a protagonist’s journey be effected by the barriers of language, culture, and differences between expectations and reality when the legend of the promised Dream doesn’t measure up to its substance?

Exploring New Possibilities

There are many impulses driving writers to create fantastical worlds. For Tolkien, the desire to create Middle-earth began with his love of language and his compulsion to create languages for imaginary peoples. The natural extension of that desire was to create a world capable of sustaining those languages and dedicate it to his native land as an honorary national epic.

Many writers today still look to Tolkien’s Middle-earth and their desire to duplicate its brilliance as the compulsion informing their own world building efforts. It is an urge that should be resisted. The brilliance of new worlds is not in the sum of their parts, but in the exploration of ideas and the places they take us. In order for high fantasy to continue growing, it may be advisable to turn away from Middle-earth and look to the world around us.

What are some of the tropes of high fantasy that you feel need to be either retired or reinvented? Where do you look for inspiration in keeping high fantasy fresh and vital?

About the Author:

Dan Berger is a self-avowed Tolkien nut and co-founder of the science fiction and fantasy website Foes of Reality. His Tolkien-related posts include an interview with Hobbit illustrator Jemima Catlin, as well as musings on the transformation of The Hobbit from modest-length children’s book to massive three-part film epic which you can find here and here.

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29 thoughts on “J.R.R. Tolkien: Myths That Never Were and the Worlds That They Become”

  1. Mike Cairns Dan Berger The_Tolkienist MIke, I very much agree, and they managed to get that across very nicely with that compressed scene in Galadriel’s mirror rather than spell out “The Scouring of the Shire” on film. That was a nice touch. I wish there were more of those touches in The Hobbit films. It doesn’t need to be slavish translation of the material to be good, but it does need to be informed adaptation, damn it!

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  2. The _Tolkienist Right, that’s why Tolkien specifically points out that Arthurian legend is, “…associated with the soil of Britain but not with English,” meaning “the English language.” He’s making a point of showing that the romantic French rendering is invalidating Arthur as a national epic, even as “The once and future King” echo about in the national conscience to the contrary. He was having none of that!
    As for the convolutions of Tolkien and language and poetry and scholarship and sheer brilliance…hey. I was writing a blog post, man-not a book! I can only have so much fun with that before I run out of space! 🙂

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  3. Mike Cairns Hi Mike, 

    I totally agree that bundles of traits need translating into deeper meditations on…well, what makes a people a culture; with all of the internal inconsistencies of individuals that go to war against various traditions comprising a cultural identity. It’s a tough tightrope to walk. On the one hand, as a writer, there is a desire to reveal nuance and the essential “truth” of a character through the complex revelation of their actions. But there is also a desire to reveal simpler “truths” in the guise of idealized forms, like nationalism and the ideology that defines it. Both are functional contributions to a more fully realized fiction. One impulse informs the variability of individualism, the other informs the constancy of cultural or national identity. Sounds like fertile fields to explore for any artist.
    Thank you for your kind words about the post!
    Best,
    Dan

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  4. stevenmlongDan Berger Isn’t this already happening? I mean, there are quite a few writers out there 🙂
    Terry Pratchett, for example, has been deconstruction typical fantasy tropes for decades now. Yes, some may say it’s all parody and satire but with his more serious titles in recent years he has made dwarves come a long way – gender equality, for example, is a huge issue with him (away from bearded dwarves being both male and/or female because you really can’t tell them apart ;))

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  5. Dan Berger The_Tolkienist COuldn’t agree more, I hadn’t realised they’ve turned it into a trilogy!!
    Having said that, I did think they got the industrialisation/trashing of the countryside bit right in LOTR, giving it the weight it deserved.

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  6. Hi Dan
    Great post, lots of food for thought. 
    I think your suggestion of a new system of government is a strong one, and would alter so many of the other tropes that abound in high fantasy. 
    Although i agree in the comments with the need for elves and dwarves to be looked at, it is the specific, stereotyped character traits that need to change, I think. They keep getting called different things, but we are so clued into what one expects from them, that regardless of the name, we still recognise them. So more rounded, complete people, whatever the ethnicity, are called for. 
    cheers
    Mike

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  7. Dan BergerDifferentation between “England” and “Britain” is important, true enough, but it should also be noted that with most people nowadays the body of Arthurian legends is influenced by the romantic French rendering of it (Le Morte d’Arthur etc.) of which Tolkien as a medievalist was clearly aware (and wasn’t too fond of it).
    There is a reason why he wrote (or started to write) “The Fall of Arthur” and that is more in keeping with his own ideas of presenting “myth” and his professional knowledge of the original medieval texts covering the legendary figure of Arthur. If you were to try and write “myth” you would have to write poetry (or at least alliterative verse.) Have fun with that *g*

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  8. @Zen  I think you are correct in making the Enland/Britain distinction, although it is equally fair to point out that Tolkien specifically notes Arthurian legend’s association with the “soil of Britain” as a criterion for mythological connection, which presumably carried through with his ideas about the specific region of the UK that was thus impoverished. Considering the disappearance of the Picts from Scotland along with their body of myth, an argument for the impoverishment of tradition can be made beyond England alone. Tolkien would surely have been aware of this Pictish gap.

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  9. Good stuff. One little issue though . . .

    ‘This sentiment of Tolkien’s resonated strongly with me as an American. If the mythological tradition of Britain is “impoverished,” it can only be described as mangled, confused, or non-existent in America.’

    I don’t think it’s ‘Britain’ he felt had an impoverished tradition, but specifically ‘England’ in comparison to its Celtic, and continental, neighbours.

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  10. That’s a great point. It does seem like both nations and humanoid species in fantasy often get painted as personifications rather than living, breathing cultures. A large part of the problem is that human nature tends to simplify the ideas of unfamiliar peoples into broad generalizations. I just had an experience today where someone visiting our blog made a comment to the effect of “Americans see the world in X way.” It was a sentiment wielding all the subtlety of a chimpanzee dressed as an Elvis impersonator. That same nuance usually goes into defining cultures in fantasy fiction.

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  11. Dan Berger stevenmlong I tend to be all about the essence stuff, that’s usually what gets me started on something in the first place, i.e. some dynamic that interests me – I’m not sure why – and then I build from there.

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  12. Backing up a bit from specifically elves and dwarves, it would be nice to diversify the views of our peoples, rather than compose a species or subspecies entirely of people who behave the same way and have the same beliefs.

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  13. stevenmlong Absolutely. The trick is in moving beyond the deconstruction of narrative and discovering what is essential about specific narratives, then delving into how that essence informs the human experience on a universal level. Too often people get caught in the deconstruction phase and become more interested in the pieces parts than the essence that brought them together as a whole in the first place. That brand of over-intellectualizing is death from what I’ve seen as a student of English who survived the post-modernist blitzkrieg of two-and-a-half decades ago.

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  14. Nice piece – it would be interesting to see something built like this, deconstructed, and the differentiation made between author and historical context.

    I think you’re spot on with finding myth and building from there. You could also easily look at any medium – comics, books, T.V., movies, whatever – deconstruct it, locate cultural narratives, and use them for inspiration.

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  15. Dan Berger I’d say a good start to that would be to deconstruct them, examine their roots and relationship to either other (or take them separately) and build them up again in a new, organic way.

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  16. The_Tolkienist Dan Berger It would be interesting to see how the Jackson team decided to tackle the adaptation process. It was a tangled process, too, from what I understand.Script development began as a two film structure under Guillermo Del Toro back when Jackson and New Line were feuding over New Line’s accounting practices. A portion of Del Toro’s input persisted when the film returned to the Jackson team. Then the script was expanded from two films to three. Looking at the results, I can’t help but think that the story, even allowing for elements of expansion from appropriate textual sources in the LotR appendices, would have been better served as a two-part film.

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  17. Dan BergerThe_TolkienistIt’d be quite interesting to have a look at the world-building decisions taken by the Jackson team – a good film starts out as a script (i.e. writing) which has been adapted to work inanother medium. There has been some work on LR with this but for the Hobbit film trilogy this might be an interesting thought to follow …

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  18. The_Tolkienist Thanks much for the vote of confidence! These days, Peter Jackson is giving us all too many reasons to try and get our collective Tolkien right.

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  19. Thanks, Dan, always glad to see someone get his “Tolkien” right; also like the suggestions on world-building you provide. Will share!

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  20. I agree. It had enough of the old-world properties of the elves, while mixing in a good balance of some new concepts and ideas. DA altogether was – is – a well-crafted fantasy universe.

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  21. Yes, a new take on elves and dwarves would be welcome. What the game Dragon Age: Origins did with elves was rather interesting and unexpected.

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  22. Or at the very least, a new take on them. I’m personally tired of the beautiful, sharp-eared nomadic protectors of the forest.

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